What type of models includes both top-down and horizontal approaches?

The correct answer is theoretical models. These models are designed to provide a framework for understanding and analyzing complex systems or phenomena by integrating various approaches, including both top-down and horizontal strategies. The top-down approach often involves starting with a broad overview and progressively narrowing down to specific details, while the horizontal approach involves examining different parts of a system at the same level of detail to find connections or variations.

Theoretical models enhance the understanding of relationships and dynamics within the subject being studied, offering insights that empirical data alone may not provide. By utilizing both approaches, theoretical models can create a more comprehensive perspective, enabling better predictions and interpretations of behavior in various contexts.

In contrast, empirical models typically rely on observed and measured data rather than theoretical frameworks, and market models focus specifically on market behavior and conditions without necessarily integrating a theoretical approach. Financial models usually concentrate on numerical data and projections related to financial performance, often tied to specific metrics or calculations without encompassing broader theoretical concepts.